Shotgun metabolomic approach based on mass spectrometry for hepatic mitochondria of mice under arsenic exposure.

Mass spectrometry (MS)-based toxicometabolomics requires analytical approaches for obtaining unbiased metabolic profiles. The present work explores the general application of direct infusion MS using a high mass resolution analyzer (a hybrid systems triple quadrupole-time-of-flight) and a complementary gas chromatography-MS analysis to mitochondria extracts from mouse hepatic cells, emphasizing on mitochondria isolation from hepatic cells with a commercial kit, sample treatment after cell lysis, comprehensive metabolomic analysis and pattern recognition from metabolic profiles. Finally, the metabolomic platform was successfully checked on a case-study based on the exposure experiment of mice Mus musculus to inorganic arsenic during 12 days. Endogenous metabolites alterations were recognized by partial least squares-discriminant analysis. Subsequently, metabolites were identified by combining MS/MS analysis and metabolomics databases. This work reports for the first time the effects of As-exposure on hepatic mitochondria metabolic pathways based on MS, and reveals disturbances in Krebs cycle, ß-oxidation pathway, amino acids degradation and perturbations in creatine levels. This non-target analysis provides extensive metabolic information from mitochondrial organelle, which could be applied to toxicology, pharmacology and clinical studies.

Combination of direct infusion mass spectrometry and gas chromatography mass spectrometry for toxicometabolomic study of red blood cells and serum of mice Mus musculus after mercury exposure.

Although mercury (Hg) is an important environmental and occupational pollutant, its toxicological effects, especially in serum and red blood cells (RBCs), have been scarcely studied. A toxicometabolomics workflow based on high resolution mass spectrometry approaches has been applied to investigate the toxicological effects of Hg in Mus musculus mice after subcutaneous injection for 10 days, which produced inflammation and vacuolization, steatosis and karyolysis in the hepatic tissue. To this end, direct infusion mass spectrometry (DIMS) of polar and lipophilic extracts from serum and RBCs, using positive and negative mode of acquisition (ESI+/ESI-), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used. A quantitative analysis of reversible oxidized thiols in serum proteins demonstrated a strong oxidative stress induction in the liver of Hg-exposed mice. Endogenous metabolites alterations were identified by partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Mercury-exposed mice show perturbations in energy metabolism, amino acid metabolism, membrane phospholipid breakdown and oxidative stress-related metabolites in serum along the exposure. This work reports for the first time the effects of Hg-exposure on RBCs metabolic pathways, and reveals disturbances in glycolysis, membrane turnover, glutathione and ascorbate metabolisms.

Biological interactions between mercury and selenium in distribution and detoxification processes in mice under controlled exposure. Effects on selenoprotein.

Antagonistic interactions between mercury (Hg) and selenium (Se), were evaluated in mouse (Mus musculus), as a mammalian model, in a series of controlled exposure experiments. The beneficial effect of Se against Hg toxicity involves a variety of biochemical and toxicological processes that have not been clarified yet. For this purpose, a metallomic workflow based on the use of size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) detection was complemented with the speciation of selenoproteins and low molecular mass selenium species in serum and liver cytosolic extracts using a multidimensional approach based on SEC-AF-HPLC-ICPMS, using species-unspecific isotope dilution (SUID)-ICP-MS for selenium quantification. The results showed potential interactions between Hg/Se in organs and serum related to accumulation and detoxification processes, in addition to the effects of mercury on selenoproteins in hepatic cytosolic extracts and bloodstream when both elements are administrated at the same time. These results provide information about elements distribution, interactions and homeostasis and reveal the potential of metallomic approaches in exposure experiments.

Absolute quantification of superoxide dismutase in cytosol and mitochondria of mice hepatic cells exposed to mercury by a novel metallomic approach.

In the last years, the development of new methods for analyzing accurate and precise individual metalloproteins is of increasing importance, since numerous metalloproteins are excellent biomarkers of oxidative stress and diseases. In that way, methods based on the use of post column isotopic dilution analysis (IDA) or enriched protein standards are required to obtain a sufficient degree of accuracy, precision and high limits of detection. This paper reports the identification and absolute quantification of Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD) in cytosol and mitochondria from mice hepatic cells using a innovative column switching analytical approach. The method consisted of orthogonal chromatographic systems coupled to inductively coupling plasma-mass spectrometry equipped with a octopole reaction systems (ICP-ORS-MS) and UV detectors: size exclusion fractionation (SEC) of the cytosolic and mitochondrial extracts followed by online anion exchange chromatographic (AEC) separation of Cu/Zn containing species. After purification, Cu,Zn-SOD was identified after tryptic digestion by molecular mass spectrometry (MS). The MS/MS spectrum of a doubly charged peptide was used to obtain the sequence of the protein using the MASCOT searching engine. This optimized methodology reduces the time of analysis and avoids the use of sample preconcentration and clean-up procedures, such as cut-off centrifuged filters, solid phase extraction (SPE), precipitation procedures, off-line fractions insolates, etc. In this sense, the method is robust, reliable and fast with typical chromatographic run time less than 20 min. Precision in terms of relative standard deviation (n = 5) is of 3-5% and detection limits is 0.21 ngCug(-1). The application of the methodology to hepatic cells from mice exposed to inorganic mercury reveals decreased levels of Cu,Zn-SOD in cytosolic and mitochondrial extracts, as a consequence of the oxidative stress caused by this toxic metal. Additionally, the quantification of mitochondrial Cu,Zn-SOD in hepatic cells from Mus musculus has been carried out for the first time.

Use of metallomics and metabolomics to assess metal pollution in Doñana National Park (SW Spain).

Monitoring organism exposure to heavy metals has acquired increased importance in the last decades. The mouse Mus spretus has been used to assess the biological response to contaminants in the relevant ecological area of Doñana National Park (DNP) and surrounding areas (SW Spain), where many migrating birds land for breeding and feeding every year. A metallomics approach, based on the characterization of metal biomolecules using size exclusion chromatography coupled with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS) and a metabolomics approach based on direct infusion to a mass spectrometer (DI-ESI-QTOF-MS) followed by a partial linear square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), were used to compare the biological responses of M. spretus living in three areas of DNP (the reference) and surrounding areas (El Partido and El Matochal). The activities of key antioxidant enzymes, such as Cu/Zn-SOD, Mn-SOD, CAT, GR, and guaiacol peroxidase, were also determined in connection with environmental contamination issues. The results show differences caused by the presence of metals in the ecosystem that affected to the levels of metals and metalloproteins, such as MT, Cu/Zn-SOD, or Mn-CA, the breakdown of membrane phospholipids, perturbations in metabolic pathways, related to energy metabolism, and oxidative stress.

Cadmium toxicity in Mus musculus mice based on a metallomic study. Antagonistic interaction between Se and Cd in the bloodstream.

Cadmium (Cd) is an important inorganic toxicant in the environment which impacts on human health. A metallomic approach based on size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) coupled to inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and multidimensional chromatography separation based on SEC coupled to affinity chromatography 2D-SEC-AF-ICP-MS have been applied to achieve a better understanding of the function, detoxification processes and regulation of metals in mice (Mus musculus) under controlled exposure to both Cd and Cd plus (77)Se. Isotopic dilution analysis (IDA) was performed to quantify selenium containing proteins in mice plasma with ICP-qMS as a multielemental detector. Additionally, isotope pattern deconvolution (IPD) was applied to study the fate of enriched (77)selenite in mice subjected to cadmium exposure and the effect of selenoprotein production in plasma. Moreover, the affinity of Cd for SeP in plasma of mice was corroborated using anion exchange chromatography (AEC) after AF separation and identified by organic mass spectrometry. This work illustrates the high reliability of the integrated use of inorganic and organic mass spectrometry to get a metallomic approximation, which provides a good alternative to gain deep insight into the fate of elements in exposed organisms, providing information about metal trafficking, interactions and homeostasis.

Simultaneous speciation of selenoproteins and selenometabolites in plasma and serum by dual size exclusion-affinity chromatography with online isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

A method for the simultaneous speciation of selenoproteins and selenometabolites in mouse plasma has been developed based on in series two-dimensional size exclusion and affinity high-performance liquid chromatography (2D/SE-AF-HPLC), using two columns of each type, and hyphenation to inductively coupled plasma-(quadrupole) mass spectrometry (ICP-QMS). The method allows the quantitative determination of selenoprotein P (SeP), extracellular glutathione peroxidase (eGPx), selenoalbumin (SeAlb), and selenometabolites in mouse plasma using species-unspecific isotope dilution (SUID). The 2D chromatographic separation is proposed to remove typical spectral interferences in plasma from chloride and bromide on (77)Se ((40)Ar(37)Cl) and (82)Se ((81)Br(1)H). In addition, the approach increases chromatographic resolution allowing the separation of eGPx from Se metabolites of low molecular mass. The method is robust, reliable, and fast with a typical chromatographic runtime less than 20 min. Precision in terms of relative standard deviation (n = 5) is in the order of 4 %, and detection limits are in the range of 0.2 to 1.0 ng Se g(-1). Method accuracy for determination of total protein bound to Se was assessed by analyzing human serum reference material (BCR-637) certified for total Se content, and latterly applied to mouse plasma (Mus musculus). In summary, a reliable speciation method for the analysis of eGPx, selenometabolites, SeP, and SeAlb in plasma/serum samples is proposed for the first time and is applicable to the evaluation of Se status in human in clinical studies and other mammals for environmental or toxicological assessment.

Application of metallomic and metabolomic approaches in exposure experiments on laboratory mice for environmental metal toxicity assessment.

Metals have a central role in biological systems, regulating numerous cellular processes, and in other cases having toxic or deleterious effects on the metabolism. Hence, the study of metal-induced changes in cellular metabolic pathways is crucial to understanding the biological response associated with environmental issues. In this context, the finding of biomarkers has great interest, representing -omics techniques, such as metallomics and metabolomics, powerful tools for this purpose. The present work evaluates the exposure of mice Mus musculus to toxic metals (As, Cd and Hg), considering the changes induced in both the metallome and metabolome as a consequence of the high genetic homology between Mus musculus/Mus spretus mice, which allows the use of the database from M. musculus to identify the proteins and metabolites expressed by M. spretus. For this purpose a metallomic approach based on size exclusion chromatography (SEC) in combination with other complementary orthogonal separation techniques and heteroelement monitoring by ICP-ORS-qMS was performed, followed by identification of metallobiomolecules by organic mass spectrometry. In addition, simultaneous speciation of selenoproteins and selenometabolites in mouse plasma was accomplished by tandem (double) SEC-(dual) affinity chromatography (AF)-HPLC and online isotope dilution analysis (IDA)-ICP-ORS-qMS. Finally, the simultaneous changes in metabolic expression in mice caused by metal exposure (metabolome) were considered, using direct infusion mass spectrometry (DI-ESI-QqQ-TOF-MS) of extracts from mice plasma. Subsequently altered metabolites were identified using MS/MS experiments. The results obtained under controlled conditions were extrapolated to homologous free-living mice captured in Doñana National Park (DNP) and surroundings (southwest Spain) affected by As, Cd and Hg pollution. In summary, such studies are needed to understand the effect of heavy metal exposure and cope with heavy metal toxicity.

Metabolomic study in plasma, liver and kidney of mice exposed to inorganic arsenic based on mass spectrometry.

The mechanism of arsenic toxicity still remains unclear, although enzymatic inhibition, impaired antioxidants metabolism and oxidative stress may play a role. The toxicological effects of trivalent inorganic arsenic on laboratory mouse Mus musculus after oral administration (3 mg/kg body weight/day) were investigated along 12 days, using a metabolomic approach based on direct infusion mass spectrometry to polar and lipophilic extracts from different organs and fluids (liver, kidney, and plasma). Positive and negative acquisition modes (ESI(+)/ESI(-)) were used throughout the experiments. The most significant endogenous metabolites affected by exposure were traced by partial least square-discriminant analysis and confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and gas chromatography coupled to MS. In this work, the toxic effect of arsenic has been related with important metabolic pathways, such as energy metabolism (e.g., glycolysis, Krebs cycle), amino acids metabolism, choline metabolism, methionine cycle, and degradation of membrane phospholipids (cell apoptosis). In addition, this work illustrates the high reliability of mass spectrometry based on a metabolomic approach to study the biochemical effects induced by metal exposure.

Analysis of the biological response of mouse liver (Mus musculus) exposed to As2O3 based on integrated -omics approaches.

Organic and inorganic mass spectrometries were used to investigate the biochemical response of mice (Mus musculus) to inorganic arsenic exposure using liver as the target organ. The toxicological effects of trivalent inorganic arsenic after oral administration (3 mg kg(-1) body weight and per day) were investigated over a period of 7 days using metallomics, metabonomics and redox proteomics approaches. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with ICP-MS detection was combined with anion exchange chromatography (AEC) to characterize the biological response of the exposed mice. On the other hand, direct infusion mass spectrometry (DI-ESI-QTOF-MS) of polar and lipophilic extracts using positive and negative modes of acquisition (ESI+/ESI-) provided information about time-dependent changes in endogenous metabolites identified by Partial Least Square-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA). Finally, the study has been complemented with the evaluation of up/down-regulation of enzymes related to oxidative stress such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT) and peroxidases in connection with metal toxicity issues. The results show that the inorganic arsenic methylation in the liver may reach the saturation point upon chronic exposure to the element. On the other hand, SEC-ICP-MS coupling provided information about metal containing-proteins and metabolites related to arsenic exposure (metallomics) which has been correlated with the changes in the global metabolism (metabonomics), also considering their consequences on the redox status of protein and protein expression (redox proteomics). Our study shows that arsenic causes biochemical pathway alterations, such as energy metabolism (e.g. glycolysis, Krebs cycle), amino acid metabolism, choline metabolism and degradation of membrane phospholipids (apoptosis). This work illustrates the high reliability of the integrated use of organic mass spectrometry for the metabonomic study of biochemical effects induced by As2O3, with inorganic mass spectrometry for metallomic and speciation assessment of arsenic biomethylation in the liver of exposed mice, and redox proteomics to evaluate inhibition of enzymatic activity in different proteins such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione reductase (GR) caused by this element. In conclusion, the integration of metallomics, metabolomics and redox proteomics results provides a more comprehensive evaluation about the biological response in experiments dealing with exposure to toxic metals.

Development of a new column switching method for simultaneous speciation of selenometabolites and selenoproteins in human serum.

A method for the simultaneous speciation of selenoproteins and selenometabolites in human serum has been developed on the basis of in series three dimensional chromatography: size exclusion, affinity and anion exchange high performance liquid chromatography (3D/SE-AF-AEC-HPLC), using different columns of each type and hyphenation to inductively coupled plasma-(quadrupole) mass spectrometry (ICP-qMS). The method allows the quantitative simultaneous analysis of selenoprotein P (SeP), extracellular glutathione peroxidase (eGPx), selenoalbumin (SeAlb), selenite and selenate in human serum using species-unspecific isotope dilution (SUID). The 3D chromatographic separation is proposed to remove typical spectral interferences in this matrix from chloride and bromide on (77)Se ((40)Ar(37)Cl), (80)Se ((79)Br(1)H) and (82)Se ((81)Br(1)H). In addition, a previous method based on 2D/SE-AF-HPLC is proposed as a simple alternative when low molecular mass selenium species are absent in the samples. The method is robust, reliable and fast with typical chromatographic runtime less than 35min. Detection limits are in the range of 0.2-1.3ng of Seg(-1). Method accuracy for determination of total protein-bound to Se was assessed by analyzing an human serum reference material (BCR-637) certified for total Se content and method reliability checked in samples of human serum providing results in good agreement with the total selenium concentration. In addition, the application of the method to commercial human serum and plasma reference materials for quality control analysis, certified for total Se, has provided, for the first time, indicative levels of selenium containing proteins in these samples.

Metal interactions in mice under environmental stress.

A metallomic analytical approach based on the use of size exclusion chromatography coupled to ICP-MS has been used to obtain metal profiles related to overexpression or inhibition of metal-binding biomolecules, which is connected to exposure experiment of laboratory mice Mus musculus to toxic metals, such as Cd, Hg and As. Exposure to Cd induces the formation of Cd-metallothionein in liver that reveals the protective role of this organ; however, exposure to Hg reduces the intensity of the peak associated to Cu-superoxide dismutase (Cu-SOD) while Hg-SOD peak increases, which suggests the competence of Cu and Hg for the active sites of SOD in liver that causes mercury translocation to kidney, in which the concentration of Hg as Hg-metallothionein increases drastically to be excreted by urine. It has been also observed the protective effect of selenium on mercury toxicity in blood plasma, which produces decreasing of the intensity of Se-protein in plasma with Hg exposure and correlative increases of Hg-albumin that transport mercury to kidney for excretion. Finally, arsenic exposure provokes the accumulation of small metabolites of this element, such as dimethylarsenic and monomethylarsenic for excretion. The application of the metallomic approach to liver extracts from free-living mouse Mus spretus shows the overexpression of Cu, Zn and Cd-peaks at 7 kDa (related to metal-metallothionein) in environmental contaminated sites, as well as the increase of peaks related to Cu- and Zn-SOD and Zn-albumin. However, in kidney, can be checked the presence of high concentration of arsenic small metabolites in contaminated areas, similarly to results found in exposure experiments. In addition, the application of a metabolomic approach based on direct infusion mass spectrometry to organ extracts (liver, kidney and serum) from mice (M. musculus) exposed to arsenic reveals important metabolic changes related to antioxidative activity, membrane cell damage, energy metabolism and arsenic elimination. Similar results were obtained from free-living mouse (M. spretus) from areas contaminated with arsenic. The integration of metallomics and metabolomics results provides a more comprehensive evaluation about the biological response in exposure experiments to toxic metals as well as in environmental assessment of contamination.

Speciation of arsenic in marine food (Anemonia sulcata) by liquid chromatography coupled to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and organic mass spectrometry.

Arsenic species have been investigated in Anemonia sulcata, which is frequently consumed food staple in Spain battered in wheat flour and fried with olive oil. Speciation in tissue extracts was carried out by anion/cation exchange chromatography with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-(AEC/CEC)-ICP-MS). Three methods for the extraction of arsenic species were investigated (ultrasonic bath, ultrasonic probe and focused microwave) and the optimal one was applied. Arsenic speciation was carried out in raw and cooked anemone and the dominant species are dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)) followed by arsenobetaine (AB), As(V), monomethylarsonic acid (MA(V)), tetramethylarsonium ion (TETRA) and trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO). In addition, arsenocholine (AsC), glyceryl phosphorylarsenocholine (GPAsC) and dimethylarsinothioic acid (DMAS) were identified by liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). These results are interesting since GPAsC has been previously reported in marine organisms after experimental exposure to AsC, but not in natural samples. In addition, this paper reports for the first time the identification of DMAS in marine food.

Biological response of free-living mouse Mus spretus from Doñana National Park under environmental stress based on assessment of metal-binding biomolecules by SEC-ICP-MS.

A metallomic approach based on the use of size-exclusion chromatography (Superdex-75) with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) detection is combined with anion or cation exchange chromatography to characterize the biological response of the free-living mouse Mus spretus. The approach has been applied to contaminated and non-contaminated areas from Doñana National Park (southwest Spain) and the surroundings. Several areas affected by differential contamination from mining, industrial, and agricultural activities have been considered. The high presence of Mn, Cu, and Zn in liver and As and Cd in kidney is remarkable, especially in contaminated areas. The size exclusion chromatograms traced by Mn in liver cytosolic extracts are more intense than in kidney; a Mn-peak matching with the standard of 32 kDa (superoxide dismutase) is present in these organs, and its intensity is correlated with the concentration of Mn in the extracts. High-intensity peaks traced by Cu, Zn, and Cd at 7 kDa (matching with metallothionein I standard) in liver extract are triggered by the presence of contaminants. Other peaks related with molecules of 32 and 67 kDa traced by Cu and Zn can also be observed, although their intensity is higher in sites with low contamination. In kidney extracts, the presence of a Cd-peak with Mr of 7 kDa (tentatively Cd-metallothionein) with high intensity under the action of contaminants was observed, but high biological responses are also proven in the protected area of the Park, which denotes a progressive increase of diffuse contamination.

Biological responses related to agonistic, antagonistic and synergistic interactions of chemical species.

The fact that the essential or toxic character of elements is species specific has encouraged the development of analytical strategies for chemical speciation over the last twenty years; indeed, there are now a great number of them that provide very good performance. However, biological systems are exposed to a complex environment in which species of elements can interact in a synergistic/antagonistic fashion. Thus, the metabolism of trace elements cannot be considered in isolation. On the other hand, biological systems are dynamic, so it is necessary to study the trafficking of species of elements between organs, tissues or cell compartments in order to decipher the biochemical processes of the interactions in which they are involved. Although the application of liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-based "metallomics" methods in combination with organic mass spectrometry can provide much-needed insight, new analytical strategies are required to really understand the role of species of elements in biological systems and the mechanisms of their interactions. In the present paper, the interactions of the most widely studied elements in this context (Se, Hg and As) are discussed, as well as other important interactions between different elements.